Gendered power dynamics dominated the societal landscape during the medieval period, leading women to seek authority and agency through avenues of religion and spirituality. Faith and education became conduits for empowerment and strength, while the concept of virginity transformed into a radical act of self-reclamation. The women in the texts The Life of Saint Katherine, The Martyrdom of Saint Katherine, and Christina of Markyate exercise immense self-knowledge and resourcefulness to gain control over their identities. As supported by the treatise Holy Maidenhood, the women in these works of literature preserve autonomy over their bodies and their minds through their efforts toward individuality. They create lives outside of the constraints of marriage, liberating themselves from the hierarchy dictating female subservience.

The women in these texts wield wit and education as powerful tools in navigating the patriarchal structure of society. Through self-knowledge, these women can assert themselves and their individuality, shaping their identities per their personal ambitions and desires. In The Life of Saint Katherine: Book 1, John Capgrave delves into the details of Katherine’s early life, characterizing her as a scholarly young woman with a strong education and a deep intellectual curiosity. He carefully colors the world around Katherine, describing her garden in vivid detail. Katherine appears to be a sensitive, contemplative young woman who takes comfort in solitude — “for of many thynges was sche sore aghast but most of inquietude” (Capgrave 5.354-355). Capgrave spends an entire chapter revealing how “sche lerned than the liberall artes seven,” mastering grammar, rhetoric, logic, music, geometry, arithmetics, and astronomy (Capgrave 7.365). By specifically describing Katherine’s academic abilities, Capgrave renders her as diligent and studious, despite her gender. “Sche mowled not, I trow, in no ydylnes,” for instance, shows how she never lapses into inactivity or displays laziness (Capgrave 7.399). Capgrave’s focus on Katherine’s education works to garner respect from readers. Katherine proves herself to be rational as well as gifted by challenging herself with vigor and pursuing the liberal arts. Held in high regard, rationality was typically associated with men, rather than women. However, Katherine subverts this gendered trait as she engages in a level of higher education uncommon for women at the time. 

The Martyrdom of Saint Katherine offers a different look at the life of Saint Katherine, centering around her confrontation with King Maxence and her resistance to his religious oppression. Katherine prevails in converting the king’s philosophers and his queen to Christianity through her ability to debate with reason. As the king grows angrier with Katherine, he resorts to outbursts of emotion, admonishing her and commanding her to recant. Katherine responds to the king’s tirade by standing firm: “In no way, king, do I care for you to postpone it further, but command quickly what you have in your heart, for I am prepared for all the woe that you can contrive for me so that I can see my beautiful lover…” (58). Katherine’s language demonstrates that she is far from being hysterical. On the contrary, she is dignified, determined not to bend to the will of the king. While this text does not offer as much detail as The Life of Saint Katherine does in regards to Katherine’s early life, its emphasis on Katherine’s bravery positions her as a passionate, powerful saint. The events in The Life of Saint Katherine unfold more as a story would, introducing Katherine as a sympathetic character rather than a legend. There is less warmth in The Martyrdom of Saint Katherine and more intensity — intensity in terms of both physical violence and psychological duress. This exposes the relationship between physicality and spirituality for women. Katherine endures a painful death because she adheres to her faith. Her loyalty tests the limits of her flesh, as she continues to defend Christ despite the king threatening her with bodily harm. The image of the executioner heaving up “that hateful sword and [swiping] off her head” connotes the bloodshed which Katherine and other female saints are subjected to in proving their religious beliefs and sustaining their commitment to Christ. 

The reclamation of gendered traits correlates with the wisdom these women display when overcoming adversaries. Christina of Markyate presents the story of a young woman determined to find an alternative to the abuse she suffers at the hands of her mother and her husband. When planning her escape, Christina prepares by “taking masculine garb” in order to disguise herself (146). This quote helps develop her physical appearance as a symbol for the fluidity of gender. Christina moves from feminine dress to masculine attire in a way that mirrors her ability to move from feminine traits to masculine traits. She reminds herself: “Why delay, fugitive? Why do you respect your feminine sex? Put on manly courage and mount the horse like a man” (146). Christina’s inner dialogue points to her ability to put aside her fears and pursue a life of freedom despite the danger she faces. By mounting the horse “like a man,” she displays physical strength as well as sharpness of intellect. Christina continues to dissolve the boundaries between feminine and masculine traits; like Katherine, she refuses to give in to emotion and adopt rash decision-making. She refuses to act in a way that is expected of women. Moreover, Christina survives filthy conditions when hiding in the cell. Confined in hard stone, she endures “cold and heat, hunger and thirst, daily fasting” (148). Her bowels contract and dry up, while her nostrils bleed from thirst. She overcomes this all by remaining composed and rational. She devotes herself to prayer and “contemplative meditation,” proving to medieval audiences that her gender does not have to limit her and her chances of achieving fulfillment. 

In their pursuit of the holy, the women in these texts attain a new spiritual familial unit — a familial unit that confers more freedom on them. In The Martyrdom of Saint Katherine, Jesus Christ assumes the role of lover and partner for Katherine. As she is taken away for execution, she proclaims, “Be happy, I beseech you, if you wish me bliss, for I see Jesus Christ, who calls and looks for me, who is my Lord and my love, my life and my lover, my joy and my spouse, my mirth and my reward and the maidens’ crown” (59). The language Katherine uses displays her fervent reverence and passion. Her declaration of exultation is noteworthy, as many traditional marriages did not elicit such responses from women. On the contrary, many young women endured loveless marriages arranged by their families and forced by societal pressures. Essentially becoming the property of their husbands, they suffered irrevocable losses of identity. Katherine’s speech conveys the empowerment she attains through her spiritual allegiance, as well as alludes to the great intimacy she experiences. She feels more cherished than other wedded women even though her spouse remains intangible. This intimacy and trust allow her to face her impending death with courage. The Middle English version contains the word “murhthe” to describe Jesus Christ as Katherine’s merriment. “Murhthe” connotes a “state of happiness” and a manifestation of delight. Interestingly, it also translates into “eternal bliss,” “salvation,” and “the joys of heaven.” Eternal bliss is a concept sought after yet oftentimes unattainable for women in medieval marriages. The evocation of salvation and heaven suggests a transcendent quality to Katherine’s joy — a complete sense of understanding that surpasses the mental capacity of the king. The word “mede” holds spiritual significance as well. While it is translated simply as “reward” in the text, the Middle English Compendium allows for a more nuanced interpretation. When “mede” is considered a “spiritual reward” or a “moral consequence,” its psychological impact is revealed. Katherine is rewarded not in terms of worldly wealth, but rather in terms of inner peace and spiritual bliss. The promise of glory in the afterlife grants her the reassurance she needs to vocalize and defend her beliefs despite persecution. 

Through the securement of a spiritual bridegroom, the women in these texts achieve more satisfying relationships. From the beginning, Christina’s family of origin is depicted as devoid of love and respect. Her mother, Beatrix, represents an archetype of an evil stepmother, as she unleashes “all her fury on her own daughter” and vows to have Christina “deflowered” (144). Beatrix mistreats Christina, pulling her hair out and beating her, leaving her with physical lacerations and emotional wounds. Jesus Christ, “wishing to comfort His spouse,” offers Christina consolation through visions of hope and goodness (144). Christina witnesses a vision of a church, replete with imagery of beauty. She receives a branch of delicate leaves and flowers before seeing the queenly Virgin Mary. When Christina awakes, she experiences “immense joy” at “the thought of her freedom” (145). The emphasis on Christina’s joy demonstrates the significance of her mystical union with Christ. Similar to Katherine, Christina comes across the warmth of intimacy and care in the spiritual realm. During the time period, female joy was not valued or often discussed  — yet Christina discovers pure contentment, and strives to reclaim it as her own. Christina ultimately escapes the hardships of her life through her faith, as she ascends above the clouds to heaven. She tells the Virgin Mary that she wishes “to have that place to dwell in,” which Mary agrees to (150). Christina not only gains a home by becoming the tenant of the chapel, but also finds a greater sense of family with Christ, Mary, and Roger than she ever had with Beatrix and Burthred. 

 In Holy Maidenhood, the presentation of maidenhood translates into an opportunity for women to escape the constraints of marriage while gaining spiritual bliss and protection. The treatise equates marriage with servitude, urging women to avoid the loss of autonomy that comes with domesticity. Declaring lust as the worst sin, the treatise uses condemnatory language in its claims of sex degrading the body, soiling the soul, and fouling the flesh (210). In addition to its inflammatory depiction of sexual intimacy, the treatise evokes fear through its descriptions of the pain and grief inherent to motherhood: “they show all the more what slavery wives are in, who must endure them, and in what freedom maidens are in, who are free from them all” (212). The “blessed maiden” escapes this life of oppression and discontentment by remaining faithful to the pillars of Christianity. Interestingly, the treatise encourages virginity as an alternative not just to sexual immorality, but also to wedlock. Maidens enjoy “a hundred-fold” fruit in heaven; wedded women, thirty-fold; widows, sixty-fold (203). As “God’s free daughter” and “his Son’s spouse,” women reap the rewards of heaven while simultaneously avoiding the turmoil of wedded life. While the treatise focuses on the sinful nature of the flesh, it also implies that remaining chaste allows for societal liberation. Women retain more control over their lives and their spirits by embracing maidenhood. Accordingly, they rebel against the brutality and the superiority men impose by removing themselves entirely from the narrative of marriage. They guide their desires with wit and rationality to achieve a higher standard of living. 

Works Cited

Capgrave, John. “The Life of Saint Katherine: Book 1.” The Life of Saint Katherine: Book 1 | Robbins Library Digital Projects, d.lib.rochester.edu/teams/text/winstead-capgrave-life-of-saint-katherine-book-1. 

Petroff, E.A. (1986). Medieval Women's Visionary Literature. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK. 

Mede - Middle English Compendium, quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED27144/track?counter=1. 

Mirth and Mirthe - Middle English Compendium, quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED27915/track?counter=1.